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      Class 12 CHEMISTRY – JEE

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      • Class 12 CHEMISTRY – JEE
      CoursesClass 12ChemistryClass 12 CHEMISTRY – JEE
      • 1. Solid State
        11
        • Lecture1.1
          Crystalline & Amorphous Solid 50 min
        • Lecture1.2
          Law of Crystallography 01 hour
        • Lecture1.3
          Bravius lattice & Important Terms of solid state 48 min
        • Lecture1.4
          Type of Cubic crystal & Closest packed St. 01 hour
        • Lecture1.5
          Tetrahedral & Octahedral Void 38 min
        • Lecture1.6
          Type of Voids & Radius Ratio 44 min
        • Lecture1.7
          Type of ionic solid 59 min
        • Lecture1.8
          Defect in Solid 48 min
        • Lecture1.9
          Metallic Bonding 52 min
        • Lecture1.10
          Chapter Notes – Solid State
        • Lecture1.11
          NCERT Solutions – Solid State
      • 2. Solution and its C.P
        9
        • Lecture2.1
          Condition of solution formation, TD of Solution, Factors affecting solubility-Henary’s Law 55 min
        • Lecture2.2
          Colligative Properties, Raoult’s Law 49 min
        • Lecture2.3
          Relative lowering of V.P. & Problems 45 min
        • Lecture2.4
          Non ideal solution, Azeotropic Solution 46 min
        • Lecture2.5
          Elevation in B.P., Depression in F.P. 47 min
        • Lecture2.6
          Osmotic Pressure, Abnormal C.P. & Van’t Hoff Factor 59 min
        • Lecture2.7
          Solution – Ostwald Walker Exp. 13 min
        • Lecture2.8
          Chapter Notes – Solution and its C.P
        • Lecture2.9
          NCERT Solutions – Solution and its C.P
      • 3. Chemical Kinetics
        10
        • Lecture3.1
          Rate of reaction 37 min
        • Lecture3.2
          Differential Rate Law 38 min
        • Lecture3.3
          Integrated Rate Law 56 min
        • Lecture3.4
          Integrated Rate problems 53 min
        • Lecture3.5
          Pseudo order Reaction 40 min
        • Lecture3.6
          Reaction Mechanism 47 min
        • Lecture3.7
          Collision Model 34 min
        • Lecture3.8
          Arhenius Equation 34 min
        • Lecture3.9
          Chapter Notes – Chemical Kinetics
        • Lecture3.10
          NCERT Solutions – Chemical Kinetics
      • 4. Electrochemistry
        13
        • Lecture4.1
          Introduction & Galvanic cell 32 min
        • Lecture4.2
          Cell Notation & Cell Reaction 35 min
        • Lecture4.3
          Electrode & Cell Potential 38 min
        • Lecture4.4
          Electrochemical series 39 min
        • Lecture4.5
          The Nernst Equation 39 min
        • Lecture4.6
          Concentration cell, Battery, Corrosion 52 min
        • Lecture4.7
          Electrolysis 20 min
        • Lecture4.8
          Faraday Law 45 min
        • Lecture4.9
          Resistance & Conductance 40 min
        • Lecture4.10
          Molar & Eq. Conductance, Kohlraush’s Law 29 min
        • Lecture4.11
          Problems on Resistance & Conductance 23 min
        • Lecture4.12
          Chapter Notes – Electrochemistry
        • Lecture4.13
          NCERT Solutions – Electrochemistry
      • 5. Surface Chemistry
        11
        • Lecture5.1
          Introduction & Surface tension & surface energy 33 min
        • Lecture5.2
          Adsorption 47 min
        • Lecture5.3
          Factors affecting Adsorption 39 min
        • Lecture5.4
          Catalysis 34 min
        • Lecture5.5
          Type of Catalysis & Enzyme Catalysis 41 min
        • Lecture5.6
          Colloidal Solution 57 min
        • Lecture5.7
          Type of Colloidal Solution 43 min
        • Lecture5.8
          Properties of Colloidal Solution 50 min
        • Lecture5.9
          Protective Colloids 58 min
        • Lecture5.10
          Chapter Notes – Surface Chemistry
        • Lecture5.11
          NCERT Solutions – Surface Chemistry
      • 6. Alcohol & Ether
        8
        • Lecture6.1
          Preparation 35 min
        • Lecture6.2
          Physical Properties & Oxidation Of Alcohol 29 min
        • Lecture6.3
          Hydrates, Acetal, Ketal 38 min
        • Lecture6.4
          Tests Of Alcohol 47 min
        • Lecture6.5
          Ether Preparation & Its Properties 33 min
        • Lecture6.6
          Thiol & Thioether 16 min
        • Lecture6.7
          Chapter Notes – Alcohol & Ether
        • Lecture6.8
          NCERT Solutions – Alcohol & Ether
      • 7. Aldehyde & Ketone
        10
        • Lecture7.1
          Preparation 33 min
        • Lecture7.2
          Physical Properties, Beckmann Rearrangement, Witting Reaction 46 min
        • Lecture7.3
          Schmidt Reaction, Bayer Villegar Oxidation 22 min
        • Lecture7.4
          Aldol Condensation Reaction 40 min
        • Lecture7.5
          Cannizzaro Reaction 32 min
        • Lecture7.6
          Acyloin, Benzoin, Clasien, Perkin Condensation 28 min
        • Lecture7.7
          Reformasky Reaction, Tischenko Reaction 20 min
        • Lecture7.8
          Tests-8 40 min
        • Lecture7.9
          Chapter Notes – Aldehyde & Ketone
        • Lecture7.10
          NCERT Solutions – Aldehyde & Ketone
      • 8. Acid & derivatives
        4
        • Lecture8.1
          Preparation 31 min
        • Lecture8.2
          Chemical Reactions Of Acids 31 min
        • Lecture8.3
          Arndt Eistert, Curtius, Hvz, Hoffmann Reaction 19 min
        • Lecture8.4
          Acid Derivatives 38 min
      • 9. Nitrogen containing compounds
        4
        • Lecture9.1
          Alkyl Nitrites, Nitro Alkane 27 min
        • Lecture9.2
          Alkane Nitrile & Isonitrile 20 min
        • Lecture9.3
          Amine Preparation 24 min
        • Lecture9.4
          Properties Of Amines 13 min
      • 10. Aromatic Compounds
        7
        • Lecture10.1
          Benzene 41 min
        • Lecture10.2
          Aromatic Hydrocarbon 29 min
        • Lecture10.3
          Aryl Halides 18 min
        • Lecture10.4
          Phenol 40 min
        • Lecture10.5
          Aromatic Aldehyde 39 min
        • Lecture10.6
          Aniline 32 min
        • Lecture10.7
          Phenyl Diazonium Salts 37 min
      • 11. Biomolecules
        14
        • Lecture11.1
          Introduction & Types Of Carbohydrates 47 min
        • Lecture11.2
          D-glucose & D-fructose 50 min
        • Lecture11.3
          Reactions Of D-glucose & D-fructose 32 min
        • Lecture11.4
          Reactions Of D-glucose & D-fructose 23 min
        • Lecture11.5
          Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose 31 min
        • Lecture11.6
          Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen 27 min
        • Lecture11.7
          Reducing Sugar, Mutarotation, Osazone Formation 40 min
        • Lecture11.8
          Problems On Carbohydrates 41 min
        • Lecture11.9
          Amino Acids 48 min
        • Lecture11.10
          Peptides 47 min
        • Lecture11.11
          Proteins 18 min
        • Lecture11.12
          Enzyme & Vitamins 30 min
        • Lecture11.13
          Nucleic Acid 36 min
        • Lecture11.14
          Chapter Notes – Biomolecules
      • 12. Polymer Chemistry
        6
        • Lecture12.1
          Polymerisation Addition Reaction 32 min
        • Lecture12.2
          Coordination Addition, Condensation Reaction 24 min
        • Lecture12.3
          Division Of Polymer 41 min
        • Lecture12.4
          Examples Of Polymer 31 min
        • Lecture12.5
          Examples Of Polymer 31 min
        • Lecture12.6
          Chapter Notes – Polymer Chemistry
      • 13. Practical Organic Chemistry
        4
        • Lecture13.1
          Poc Qualitative Analysis 23 min
        • Lecture13.2
          Poc Qualitative Analysis 20 min
        • Lecture13.3
          Poc Quantitative Analysis 29 min
        • Lecture13.4
          Poc Quantitative Analysis 20 min
      • 14. P block elements II
        13
        • Lecture14.1
          VA – Elemental Properties of N family 51 min
        • Lecture14.2
          VA – Compounds of N family 43 min
        • Lecture14.3
          VA – N & Its compounds 45 min
        • Lecture14.4
          VA – Oxides & Oxyacids of Nitrogen 55 min
        • Lecture14.5
          VA – P & its compounds 31 min
        • Lecture14.6
          VA – Oxides & Oxyacids of P 31 min
        • Lecture14.7
          VIA 1 – Elemental Properties of O-Family 36 min
        • Lecture14.8
          VIA 2 – compounds of VIA elements 41 min
        • Lecture14.9
          VIA 3 – Oxygen & Ozone 47 min
        • Lecture14.10
          VIA 4 – Sulphur & oxides of Sulphur 37 min
        • Lecture14.11
          VIA 5 – Sulphuric Acid 25 min
        • Lecture14.12
          Chapter Notes – P block elements
        • Lecture14.13
          NCERT Solutions – P block elements
      • 15. P block elements III
        5
        • Lecture15.1
          VIIA 1 – elemental properties of Halogen 40 min
        • Lecture15.2
          VIIA 2 – Compounds of Halogen 49 min
        • Lecture15.3
          VIIA 3 – Chlorine & its Compounds 41 min
        • Lecture15.4
          VIIIA 1 – Properties of Noble Gas 34 min
        • Lecture15.5
          VIIIA 2 – Compounds of Noble Gas 34 min
      • 16. D block metals
        8
        • Lecture16.1
          D block – Elemental Properties 55 min
        • Lecture16.2
          Elemental Properties 01 hour
        • Lecture16.3
          Elemental Properties 53 min
        • Lecture16.4
          KMnO4 & K2Cr2O7 47 min
        • Lecture16.5
          Problems 40 min
        • Lecture16.6
          Problems 20 min
        • Lecture16.7
          Chapter Notes – The d-and f-Block Elements
        • Lecture16.8
          NCERT Solutions – The d-and f-Block Elements
      • 17. F block metals
        3
        • Lecture17.1
          Lanthanoids 52 min
        • Lecture17.2
          Actinoids 48 min
        • Lecture17.3
          Problems 42 min
      • 18. Co-ordination compounds
        17
        • Lecture18.1
          Introduction of Complex Compound, Ligands 42 min
        • Lecture18.2
          Classification of Ligands, Denticity 35 min
        • Lecture18.3
          Nomenclature of Complex Compounds 46 min
        • Lecture18.4
          Nomenclature of Complex Compounds 2 40 min
        • Lecture18.5
          Bonding in Complex Compound, Primary & Secondary Valency 44 min
        • Lecture18.6
          Concept of EAN 29 min
        • Lecture18.7
          VBT in Complex Compounds 58 min
        • Lecture18.8
          Examples on VBT in complex compounds 31 min
        • Lecture18.9
          CFT in Complex Compounds 43 min
        • Lecture18.10
          CFT for Octahedral & Tetrahedral Complex 35 min
        • Lecture18.11
          Colour & Stability of Complex Compounds 28 min
        • Lecture18.12
          Structural Isomerism in Complex Compounds 49 min
        • Lecture18.13
          Geometrical Isomerism in Complex Compounds 43 min
        • Lecture18.14
          Optical Isomerism in Complex Compounds, use of Complex 01 hour
        • Lecture18.15
          Organometallic Compounds 29 min
        • Lecture18.16
          Chapter Notes – Co-ordination compounds
        • Lecture18.17
          NCERT Solutions – Co-ordination compounds
      • 19. Environmental Chemistry
        4
        • Lecture19.1
          Introduction & Air Pollution 35 min
        • Lecture19.2
          Air Pollution 20 min
        • Lecture19.3
          Water Pollution 23 min
        • Lecture19.4
          Soil Pollution, Prevention of Pollution 16 min

        Chapter Notes – Aldehyde & Ketone

        In aldehydes, the carbonyl group (C=O) is bonded to carbon and hydrogen, while in the ketones, it is bonded to two carbon atoms

        Nature of Carbonyl Group

        The carbon and oxygen of the carbonyl group are Sp2 hybridised and the carbonyl double bond contains one o-bond and one π-bond.

        The electronegativity of oxygen is much higher than that of the carbon, so there electron cloud is shifted towards the oxygen. Therefore, C-O bond is polar in nature.

        Nomenclature

        1. Nomenclature of aldehydes In IUPAC system, the suffix “e” of alkane is replaced by the suffIX “al”. e.g.,

        1. Nomenclature of ketones In IUPAC system, the suffix “e” of alkane is replaced by “one”. e.g.,

        Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones

        1. By oxidation of alcohols Aldehydes and ketones are generally prepared by oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols, respectively.

        1. By dehydrogenation of alcohols In this method, alcohol vapours are passed over heavy metal catalysts (Ag or Cu). Primary and secondary alcohols give aldehydes and ketones.

        By ozonolysis of alkenes

         

        1. By hydration of alkynes Acetylene on hydration gives acetaldehyde and other alkynes on hydration give ketones.

        Preparation of Aldehydes

        Preparation of Ketones

         

        Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones

        1. Methanal (HCHO) is a gas at room temperature. and its 40% aqueous solution is known as formalin. It is a reducing agent in silvering of mirrors and decolourising vat dyes.
        2. Ethanal (CH3CHO) is a volatile liquid. Other aldehydes and ketones are liquid or solid at room temperature.
        3. The boiling point of aldehydes and ketones are higher than hydrocarbons and ethers of comparable molecular mass due to high magnitude of dipole-dipole interactions.
        4. Aldehydes and ketones have lower boiling point than those of alcohols of similar molecular

        masses due to absence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding.

        1. The lower members of aldehydes and ketones are miscible with water due to the formation of hydrogen bond with water. However, the solubility decreases with increase in length of alkyl chain.
        2. Acetophenone is a hypnotic (sleep producing drug) so used as a medicine under the name hypnone.

        Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones

        1. Addition of ammonia and its derivatives Reaction with ammonia

        Some N-substituted Derivatives of Aldehydes and Ketones

        1. Reduction Aldehydes and ketones are reduced to primary and secondary alcohols respectively by sodium borohydride (NaBH4) or lithium aluminium hydride [LiAlH4].

        1. Oxidation Aldehydes get easily oxidised to carboxylic acids by HNO3, KMnO4, K2Cr2O7, etc., or even by mild oxidising agent.

        During oxidation of unsymmetrical ketones the point of cleavage is such that keto group stays preferentially with the smaller alkyl group popoff‟s rule).

        [Fehling solution is a mixture of Fehling solution A and Fehling solution B in 1: 1 ratio. Fehling solution A is aqueous copper sulphate and Fehling solution B is alkaline sodium potassium tartrate which is also called, Rochelle salt.]

        1. Benedict solution With it, aldehydes (except benzaldehyde) also give red ppt. of CU2O.
        2. Schiff’s reagent It is an aqueous solution of magenta or pink coloured rosaniline hydrochloride which has been decolourised by passing SO2, Aldehydes give pink colour with this reagent but ketones do not.

         

        Haloform reaction Aldehydes and ketones having at east one methyl group [3-α hydrogen] linked to the carbonyl carbon atom (methyl ketones) are oxidised by sodium hypohalite to sodium salts of corresponding carboxylic acids having one carbon atom less than that of carbonyl compound. The methyl group is converted to haloform.

        Iodoform reaction with sodium hypoiodite is also used for the detection of CH3 – group or CH3CH(OH)- group by producing yellow solid CHI3.

        Aldol condensation

        Its further condensation gives phorone,

        This reaction is exhibited by those aldehydes and ketones which have at least one a-hydrogen.

        1. Cross aldol condensation Base catalysed crossed aldol condensation between an aromatic aldehyde and an aliphatic aldehyde or ketone is called Claisen-Schmidt condensation or Claisen reaction.

         

        The above reaction is called Benzoin condensation, not the cross aldol condensation.

        1. Cannizzaro reaction Aldehydes which do not have any α – hydrogen atom, undergo self oxidation and reduction (disproportionation) reaction on treatment with concentrated alkali.

        1. Electrophilic substitution reaction Aromatic aldehydes and ketones undergo electrophilic substitution. Carbonyl group shows + R effect, therefore acts as a deactivating and meta directing group.

        1. Baeyer- ViLLiger oxidation With Caro‟s acid (H2SO5) or per benzoic acid (C6H5CO3H) or peracetic acid (CH3CO3H) aliphatic ketones give ester.

        (xi) Knoevenagel reaction It involves condensation between active methylene group and

        ,carbonyl groups in the presence of base.

        Carboxylic Acids

         

        Classification

        Depending upon the number of -COOH groups, they are classified as

        1. monocarboxylic acids; containing one -COOH group
        2. dicarboxylic acids: containing two -COOH groups.

        Sources of carboxylic acids

        Nomenclature

        Their IUPAC names have been derived from the corresponding alkanes by replacing the letter

        „li of the alkane with „oic‟ and adding suffix „acid‟ at the end, Thus, monocarboxylic acids are called alkanoic acids.

        Methods of Preparation of Monocarboxylic Acids

        1. From primary alcohols and aldehydes

        1. From alkyl benzenes Alkyl benzene when treated with strong oxidising agent like H2CrO4 (chromic acid), acidic or alkaline KMnO4 gives benzoic acid.

        1. From acid derivatives All acid derivatives like amides (RCONH2), acid halides (RCOCl), esters (RCOOR‟), acid anhydrides (RCO-O-COR) on hydrolysis give carboxylic acids. All acid derivatives break from RCO+.

        1. From nitriles and amides Nitriles are hydrolysed to amides and then to acids in the presence of H+or OH– as catalyst. Mild reaction conditions are used to stop the reaction at the amide stage.

        1. From Grignard reagents Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide (dry ice) to form salts of carboxylic acids which in turn give corresponding carboxylic acids after acidification with mineral acid

        Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids

        1. Aliphatic carboxylic acids up to nine carbon atoms are colourless liquids at room temperature with unpleasant odours. The higher acids are wax like solids.
        2. The lower carboxylic acids are freely miscible with water due to the presence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding with H2O molecules. However, the solubility in water decreases gradually due to increase in the size of alkyl group.
        3. Monocarboxylic acids have higher boiling points as compared to the alcohols of comparable molecular masses due to the presence of stronger intermolecular hydrogen bonding as shown below.

        1. Melting points of aliphatic monocarboxylic acids shows alternation or oscillation effect, i.e., the m.p. of an acid with even number of carbon atoms is higher than the next lower and next higher homologue containing odd number of carbon atoms. This is because, in case of acids with even number of carbon atoms, the terminal -CH3 and -COOH groups lie on the opposite sides of the zig-zag chain. As a result, they get closely packed in the crystal lattice.
        2. Glacial acetic acid is completely pure acetic acid and represents the solid state of acetic acid. Below 16.6°C temperature pure acetic acid is converted into ice like solid hence it is called glacial acetic acid.

        Chemical Properties of Carboxylic Acids

        Carboxylic acids do not give reactions of carbonyl groups as it enters into resonance with lone pair of O of -OH group.

        Acidity

        Above reactions are used to detect the presence of carboxyl group Ul an organic compound. ,

        Carboxylic acids dissociate in water to give resonance stabilised carboxylate anions and hydronium ion.

        The strength of the acid is expressed in terms of the dissociation constant (Ka), also called acidity constant. A stronger acid has higher Ka but lesser pKavalue (pKa == -log Ka).

        The electron releasing substituents (+1 effect) decrease the acidic strength of the carboxylic acids by destabilising the carboxylate ion.

        The electron withdrawing substituents (-1 effect) such as halogen atoms (X), nitro (NO2) group increase the acidic strength by decreasing the magnitude of the negative charge on the carboxylate anion and thus stabilising it. The release of H+ ion becomes easy.

        Acidic strength order

        This is because -1 effect decreases in the order : F > C1 > Br > I.

         

        This is because – I effect decreases with distance.

        Per acetic acid (CH3COOO-H) is a weaker acid than acetic acid as acetate ion is stabilised by resonance.

        Acidic strength of aromatic acids The parent member of the family benzoic acid which is a weaker acid (Ka = 6.3 x 10-5) than acid (Ka = 17.7 x 10-5) but stronger than acetic acid.

        Some order of acidity are

        (b) Similarly, Ka values of methyl-substituted (toluic acids) at 298 K are as follows:

        From the Ka values, it is evident that with the exception of o-isomer, both p and m-toluic acids are weaker acids than benzoic acid whereas the three isomeric nitro benzoic acids are stronger acids than benzoic acid.

        Reactions involving cleavage of C-O-H bond

        (a) Formation of anhydride

        Mechanism

        1. Chemical reactions involving – COOH group

         

        1. Substitution reactions in the hydrocarbon part α -hydrogen atoms in carboxylic acids are acidic in nature and can be easily replaced by halogen atoms in HVZ reaction

        The reaction is known as Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction.

        1. Arndt-Eistert reaction It is method of converting lower carboxylic acids to their higher homologues

        1. Reducing property Among carboxylic acids, formic acid is the only acid that acts as reducing agent. It reduces, acidified KMnO4 to MnSO4, HgCl2 to Hg, Tollen‟s reagent to silver mirror and Fehling‟s solution to red ppt. and itself gets oxidised to CO2 and H2O.

        HCOOH + HgCl2→ Hg + 2HCI + CO2

        1. Electrophilic substitution reactions of aromatic acids -COOH group shows -R effect, therefore, acts as a deactivating and meta-directing group. Carboxylic acids do not undergo Friedel-Craft‟s reaction because the carboxylic group IS deactivating and the catalyst

        AlCl3 (anhy.) gets bonded to the carboxyl group.

        Uses

        1. Formic acid is used in leather tanning, textile dyeing and finishing.
        2. Acetic acid is used in the manufacture of rayon and in plastics, in in rubber and silk industries, in cooking and in vinegar (a 8-10% solution of acetic acid).
        3. Benzoic acid and its salts are used as urinary antiseptics.
        4. Formic acid can act as a reducing agent.

        Derivatives of Carboxylic acids

        These are obtained when -OH group of carboxylic acids is replaced by Cl, NH2, OR‟ and OCOR and are called respectively acid chloride, acid amide, ester and acid anhydride.

         

        Properties of Acid Derivatives

        1. Chemical reactions of acid halides

        1. Chemical reactions of acid amides

        1. Chemical reactions of ester

        1. Chemical reactions of anhydrides

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