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      Class 12 CHEMISTRY – JEE

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      • Class 12 CHEMISTRY – JEE
      CoursesClass 12ChemistryClass 12 CHEMISTRY – JEE
      • 1. Solid State
        11
        • Lecture1.1
          Crystalline & Amorphous Solid 50 min
        • Lecture1.2
          Law of Crystallography 01 hour
        • Lecture1.3
          Bravius lattice & Important Terms of solid state 48 min
        • Lecture1.4
          Type of Cubic crystal & Closest packed St. 01 hour
        • Lecture1.5
          Tetrahedral & Octahedral Void 38 min
        • Lecture1.6
          Type of Voids & Radius Ratio 44 min
        • Lecture1.7
          Type of ionic solid 59 min
        • Lecture1.8
          Defect in Solid 48 min
        • Lecture1.9
          Metallic Bonding 52 min
        • Lecture1.10
          Chapter Notes – Solid State
        • Lecture1.11
          NCERT Solutions – Solid State
      • 2. Solution and its C.P
        9
        • Lecture2.1
          Condition of solution formation, TD of Solution, Factors affecting solubility-Henary’s Law 55 min
        • Lecture2.2
          Colligative Properties, Raoult’s Law 49 min
        • Lecture2.3
          Relative lowering of V.P. & Problems 45 min
        • Lecture2.4
          Non ideal solution, Azeotropic Solution 46 min
        • Lecture2.5
          Elevation in B.P., Depression in F.P. 47 min
        • Lecture2.6
          Osmotic Pressure, Abnormal C.P. & Van’t Hoff Factor 59 min
        • Lecture2.7
          Solution – Ostwald Walker Exp. 13 min
        • Lecture2.8
          Chapter Notes – Solution and its C.P
        • Lecture2.9
          NCERT Solutions – Solution and its C.P
      • 3. Chemical Kinetics
        10
        • Lecture3.1
          Rate of reaction 37 min
        • Lecture3.2
          Differential Rate Law 38 min
        • Lecture3.3
          Integrated Rate Law 56 min
        • Lecture3.4
          Integrated Rate problems 53 min
        • Lecture3.5
          Pseudo order Reaction 40 min
        • Lecture3.6
          Reaction Mechanism 47 min
        • Lecture3.7
          Collision Model 34 min
        • Lecture3.8
          Arhenius Equation 34 min
        • Lecture3.9
          Chapter Notes – Chemical Kinetics
        • Lecture3.10
          NCERT Solutions – Chemical Kinetics
      • 4. Electrochemistry
        13
        • Lecture4.1
          Introduction & Galvanic cell 32 min
        • Lecture4.2
          Cell Notation & Cell Reaction 35 min
        • Lecture4.3
          Electrode & Cell Potential 38 min
        • Lecture4.4
          Electrochemical series 39 min
        • Lecture4.5
          The Nernst Equation 39 min
        • Lecture4.6
          Concentration cell, Battery, Corrosion 52 min
        • Lecture4.7
          Electrolysis 20 min
        • Lecture4.8
          Faraday Law 45 min
        • Lecture4.9
          Resistance & Conductance 40 min
        • Lecture4.10
          Molar & Eq. Conductance, Kohlraush’s Law 29 min
        • Lecture4.11
          Problems on Resistance & Conductance 23 min
        • Lecture4.12
          Chapter Notes – Electrochemistry
        • Lecture4.13
          NCERT Solutions – Electrochemistry
      • 5. Surface Chemistry
        11
        • Lecture5.1
          Introduction & Surface tension & surface energy 33 min
        • Lecture5.2
          Adsorption 47 min
        • Lecture5.3
          Factors affecting Adsorption 39 min
        • Lecture5.4
          Catalysis 34 min
        • Lecture5.5
          Type of Catalysis & Enzyme Catalysis 41 min
        • Lecture5.6
          Colloidal Solution 57 min
        • Lecture5.7
          Type of Colloidal Solution 43 min
        • Lecture5.8
          Properties of Colloidal Solution 50 min
        • Lecture5.9
          Protective Colloids 58 min
        • Lecture5.10
          Chapter Notes – Surface Chemistry
        • Lecture5.11
          NCERT Solutions – Surface Chemistry
      • 6. Alcohol & Ether
        8
        • Lecture6.1
          Preparation 35 min
        • Lecture6.2
          Physical Properties & Oxidation Of Alcohol 29 min
        • Lecture6.3
          Hydrates, Acetal, Ketal 38 min
        • Lecture6.4
          Tests Of Alcohol 47 min
        • Lecture6.5
          Ether Preparation & Its Properties 33 min
        • Lecture6.6
          Thiol & Thioether 16 min
        • Lecture6.7
          Chapter Notes – Alcohol & Ether
        • Lecture6.8
          NCERT Solutions – Alcohol & Ether
      • 7. Aldehyde & Ketone
        10
        • Lecture7.1
          Preparation 33 min
        • Lecture7.2
          Physical Properties, Beckmann Rearrangement, Witting Reaction 46 min
        • Lecture7.3
          Schmidt Reaction, Bayer Villegar Oxidation 22 min
        • Lecture7.4
          Aldol Condensation Reaction 40 min
        • Lecture7.5
          Cannizzaro Reaction 32 min
        • Lecture7.6
          Acyloin, Benzoin, Clasien, Perkin Condensation 28 min
        • Lecture7.7
          Reformasky Reaction, Tischenko Reaction 20 min
        • Lecture7.8
          Tests-8 40 min
        • Lecture7.9
          Chapter Notes – Aldehyde & Ketone
        • Lecture7.10
          NCERT Solutions – Aldehyde & Ketone
      • 8. Acid & derivatives
        4
        • Lecture8.1
          Preparation 31 min
        • Lecture8.2
          Chemical Reactions Of Acids 31 min
        • Lecture8.3
          Arndt Eistert, Curtius, Hvz, Hoffmann Reaction 19 min
        • Lecture8.4
          Acid Derivatives 38 min
      • 9. Nitrogen containing compounds
        4
        • Lecture9.1
          Alkyl Nitrites, Nitro Alkane 27 min
        • Lecture9.2
          Alkane Nitrile & Isonitrile 20 min
        • Lecture9.3
          Amine Preparation 24 min
        • Lecture9.4
          Properties Of Amines 13 min
      • 10. Aromatic Compounds
        7
        • Lecture10.1
          Benzene 41 min
        • Lecture10.2
          Aromatic Hydrocarbon 29 min
        • Lecture10.3
          Aryl Halides 18 min
        • Lecture10.4
          Phenol 40 min
        • Lecture10.5
          Aromatic Aldehyde 39 min
        • Lecture10.6
          Aniline 32 min
        • Lecture10.7
          Phenyl Diazonium Salts 37 min
      • 11. Biomolecules
        14
        • Lecture11.1
          Introduction & Types Of Carbohydrates 47 min
        • Lecture11.2
          D-glucose & D-fructose 50 min
        • Lecture11.3
          Reactions Of D-glucose & D-fructose 32 min
        • Lecture11.4
          Reactions Of D-glucose & D-fructose 23 min
        • Lecture11.5
          Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose 31 min
        • Lecture11.6
          Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen 27 min
        • Lecture11.7
          Reducing Sugar, Mutarotation, Osazone Formation 40 min
        • Lecture11.8
          Problems On Carbohydrates 41 min
        • Lecture11.9
          Amino Acids 48 min
        • Lecture11.10
          Peptides 47 min
        • Lecture11.11
          Proteins 18 min
        • Lecture11.12
          Enzyme & Vitamins 30 min
        • Lecture11.13
          Nucleic Acid 36 min
        • Lecture11.14
          Chapter Notes – Biomolecules
      • 12. Polymer Chemistry
        6
        • Lecture12.1
          Polymerisation Addition Reaction 32 min
        • Lecture12.2
          Coordination Addition, Condensation Reaction 24 min
        • Lecture12.3
          Division Of Polymer 41 min
        • Lecture12.4
          Examples Of Polymer 31 min
        • Lecture12.5
          Examples Of Polymer 31 min
        • Lecture12.6
          Chapter Notes – Polymer Chemistry
      • 13. Practical Organic Chemistry
        4
        • Lecture13.1
          Poc Qualitative Analysis 23 min
        • Lecture13.2
          Poc Qualitative Analysis 20 min
        • Lecture13.3
          Poc Quantitative Analysis 29 min
        • Lecture13.4
          Poc Quantitative Analysis 20 min
      • 14. P block elements II
        13
        • Lecture14.1
          VA – Elemental Properties of N family 51 min
        • Lecture14.2
          VA – Compounds of N family 43 min
        • Lecture14.3
          VA – N & Its compounds 45 min
        • Lecture14.4
          VA – Oxides & Oxyacids of Nitrogen 55 min
        • Lecture14.5
          VA – P & its compounds 31 min
        • Lecture14.6
          VA – Oxides & Oxyacids of P 31 min
        • Lecture14.7
          VIA 1 – Elemental Properties of O-Family 36 min
        • Lecture14.8
          VIA 2 – compounds of VIA elements 41 min
        • Lecture14.9
          VIA 3 – Oxygen & Ozone 47 min
        • Lecture14.10
          VIA 4 – Sulphur & oxides of Sulphur 37 min
        • Lecture14.11
          VIA 5 – Sulphuric Acid 25 min
        • Lecture14.12
          Chapter Notes – P block elements
        • Lecture14.13
          NCERT Solutions – P block elements
      • 15. P block elements III
        5
        • Lecture15.1
          VIIA 1 – elemental properties of Halogen 40 min
        • Lecture15.2
          VIIA 2 – Compounds of Halogen 49 min
        • Lecture15.3
          VIIA 3 – Chlorine & its Compounds 41 min
        • Lecture15.4
          VIIIA 1 – Properties of Noble Gas 34 min
        • Lecture15.5
          VIIIA 2 – Compounds of Noble Gas 34 min
      • 16. D block metals
        8
        • Lecture16.1
          D block – Elemental Properties 55 min
        • Lecture16.2
          Elemental Properties 01 hour
        • Lecture16.3
          Elemental Properties 53 min
        • Lecture16.4
          KMnO4 & K2Cr2O7 47 min
        • Lecture16.5
          Problems 40 min
        • Lecture16.6
          Problems 20 min
        • Lecture16.7
          Chapter Notes – The d-and f-Block Elements
        • Lecture16.8
          NCERT Solutions – The d-and f-Block Elements
      • 17. F block metals
        3
        • Lecture17.1
          Lanthanoids 52 min
        • Lecture17.2
          Actinoids 48 min
        • Lecture17.3
          Problems 42 min
      • 18. Co-ordination compounds
        17
        • Lecture18.1
          Introduction of Complex Compound, Ligands 42 min
        • Lecture18.2
          Classification of Ligands, Denticity 35 min
        • Lecture18.3
          Nomenclature of Complex Compounds 46 min
        • Lecture18.4
          Nomenclature of Complex Compounds 2 40 min
        • Lecture18.5
          Bonding in Complex Compound, Primary & Secondary Valency 44 min
        • Lecture18.6
          Concept of EAN 29 min
        • Lecture18.7
          VBT in Complex Compounds 58 min
        • Lecture18.8
          Examples on VBT in complex compounds 31 min
        • Lecture18.9
          CFT in Complex Compounds 43 min
        • Lecture18.10
          CFT for Octahedral & Tetrahedral Complex 35 min
        • Lecture18.11
          Colour & Stability of Complex Compounds 28 min
        • Lecture18.12
          Structural Isomerism in Complex Compounds 49 min
        • Lecture18.13
          Geometrical Isomerism in Complex Compounds 43 min
        • Lecture18.14
          Optical Isomerism in Complex Compounds, use of Complex 01 hour
        • Lecture18.15
          Organometallic Compounds 29 min
        • Lecture18.16
          Chapter Notes – Co-ordination compounds
        • Lecture18.17
          NCERT Solutions – Co-ordination compounds
      • 19. Environmental Chemistry
        4
        • Lecture19.1
          Introduction & Air Pollution 35 min
        • Lecture19.2
          Air Pollution 20 min
        • Lecture19.3
          Water Pollution 23 min
        • Lecture19.4
          Soil Pollution, Prevention of Pollution 16 min

        Chapter Notes – Alcohol & Ether

        Alcohols and Phenols

        Alcohols and phenols are formed when a hydrogen atom in hydrocarbon, aliphatic and aromatic respectively, is replaced by hydroxyl group (-OR group).

        Classification of Alcohols and Phenols

        In alcohols, -OR group is attached to Sp3 hybridised carbon. These alcohols are usually classified as primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols.

        Alcohols may be

        1. monohydric-containing one – OR group,
        2. dihydric-containing two – OR groups and
        3. polyhydric-containing three or more -OR groups.

        In phenols, -OR group is attached to Sp2 hybridised carbon. These may also be monohydric, dihydric, etc. The dihydric phenol further rosy be ortho, meta’ or para derivative.

        In allylic alcohols, – OH group is attached to sp3 hybridised carbon but next to C=C bond.

        e.g., CH2 = CH – CH2OH, Benzylic alcoho1(C6H5CH2OH)

        Structure of Alcohols and Phenols

        The oxygen atom of alcohols is Sp3 hybridised and they have tetrahedral position of hybrid atomic orbitals .

        The value of LROH bond angle depends upon the R group. For methyl alcohol, it is (∠C – O –

        H) 108.9° due to repulsion of lone pairs.

        In phenols, the – OH group is attached to Sp2 hybridised carbon and thus, the C – O bond acquires a partial double bond character.

        Nomenclature of Alcohols and Phenol

        In IUPAC, system, alcohol or alkanols are named by replacing the last word ‘e’ of the corresponding alkane by ‘ol’. e.g.,

        Preparation of Alcohols

        1. From alkenes
        2. By acid catalysed hydration in accordance with Markownikoff’s rule.

         

        Mechanism

        Step I Protonation of alkene by attack of H3O+

        Step II Nucleophilic attack

        Step III Deprotonation to form an alcohol

        By hydroboration-oxidation

        1. From carbonyl compounds
        2. By reduction of aldehydes and ketones

        Aldehydes yield primary alcohols whereas ketones give secondary alcohols, when subjected to reduction.

        1. By reduction of carboxylic acids and ester

        Reduction of aldehyde, ketones and esters with No Alcohol is called Bouveault-blanc reduction.

        The reaction produces a primary alcohol with methanol, a secondary alcohol with aldehydes (except methanal) and tertiary alcohol with ketones

        Hydrolysis of alkyl halides

        R – X + KOH(aq) → ROH + KX

        To avoid dehydrohalogenation of RX, mild alkalies like moist

        Ease of hydrolysis of alkyl halides RI > R – Br > RCI > and t > s > p alkyl halides.

         

        Hydrolysis of ethers

        1. From primary amines By treatment with nitrous acid.

        Methylamine does not give methyl alcohol when treated with HNO2. It gives CH3OCH3 and CH3ONO.

        By alcoholic fermentation

        Preparation of Phenols

        1. From haloarenes

        1. From benzene sulphonic acid

        1. From diazonium salts

        1. From cumene

        Physical Properties of Alcohols

        1. Lower alcohols are colourless liquids, members from C5 – C11 are oily liquids and higher members are waxy solids.
        2. The hydroxyl groups in alcohols can form H-bonds with water, so alcohols are miscible with water. The solubility decreases with increase in molecular mass.

        1. Boiling points of alkanes are higher than expected because of the presence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding in the polar molecules.

        [The boiling point decreases in the order 1° > 2° > 3° as the van der Waals’ forces of attraction decreases]

        Physical Properties of Phenols

        1. These are colourless liquids or crystalline solids but become coloured due to slow oxidation with air.
        2. Phenol is also called carbolic acid.
        3. Because of the presence of polar -OH bond, phenols form intermolecular H-bonding with other phenol molecules and with water.

         

        Chemical Reactions of Alcohols and Phenols

        1. Reactions involving cleavage of O – H Bond
        2. Acidity of alcohols and phenols

        Alcohols are weaker acids than water due to +1 group present in alcohols, which decreases the polarity of -O-H bond.

        Acid strength of alcohols

        Electron releasing group increases electron density on oxygen to decrease the polarity of – OH bond.

        Order of acidity is

        RCOOH > H2CO3 > C6H5OH > H2O > R – OH.

        Phenol is more acidic than alcohols due to stabilisation of phenoxide ion through resonance. Presence of electron withdrawing group increases the acidity of phenol by ,

        stabilising phenoxide ion while presence of electron releasing group decreases the acidity of phenol by destabilising phenoxide ion.

        Thus. increasing acidic strength is

        o-cresol < p-cresol < m-cresol < phenol < o-nitrophenol < 2, 4. 6.trinitrophenol (picric acid) Higher Ka and lower pKa value corresponds to the stronger acid.

        Esterification

        The reaction with R’COOH and (R’ CO)2O is reversible, so cone, H2SO4 is used to remove water.

        The reaction with R’ COCI is carried out in the presence of pyridine so as to neutralise HCI which is formed during the reaction.

        The introduction of acetyl (CH3CO-) group in phenols is known as acetylation. Acetylation of salicylic acid produces aspirin.

        1. Reaction involving cleavage of C-O bond in alcohols In these reactions, the reactivity order of different alcohols :

        Alkyl group due to +1 effect increases the electron density on the carbon and oxygen atom of C-OH bond. As a result, the bond cleavage becomes easy. Greater the number of alkyl groups present, more will be the reactivity of alcohol. Thus, the relative order of reactivity of the alcohols is justified.

        1. Reaction with halogen acids Alcohols can be converted into haloalkanes by the action of halogen acids.

        R – OH + HX (HCI, HBr, HI) → R-X +H2O

        For a given alcohol order of reactivity of HX is H-1 > H-Br > H-Cl

        For a given halogen acid order of reactivity of alcohols Tertiary > Secondary > Primary

        Lucas test

        1. Reaction with phosphorus halides

        1. Reaction with thionyl chloride

         

        d) Dehydration of alcohols It requires acid catalyst and the reaction proceeds via intermediate carbonium ion. Acidic catalyst converts hydroxyl group into a good leaving group.

        Since, the rate determining step is the formation of carbocation, the ease of dehydration is

        Mechanism

        Step I Formation of protonated alcohol

        Step II Formation of carbocation

        Step III Formation of ethene by elimination of a proton

        In dehydration reaction, highly substituted alkene is the major product and if the major product is capable of showing cis-trans isomerism, trans-product is the major product. (Saytzeff’s rule).

        1. Oxidation reactions Oxidising reagents used for the oxidation of alcohols are neutral, acidic or alkaline KMnO4 and acidified K2Cr2O7.

        A common reagent that selectively oxidises a primary alcohol to an aldehyde (and no further) is pyridinium chlorochromate (pCC).

        Dehydrogenation

        Distinction among 1°,2° and 3° Alcohols

        1°, 2° and 3° alcohols are distinguished by Lucas test, oxidation and reduced copper.

        Victor Meyer’s test is also used to distinguish them.

        In this test, primary (1°) alcohols give red colour, secondary (2°) alcohols give blue colour and tertiary (3°) alcohols give no colouration.

        Reactions of Phenols

        1. Electrophilic substitution reactions The -OH group attached to the benzene ring activates it towards electrophilic substitution at ortho and para positions .

        Halogenation

        With calculated amount of Br2 in CS2 or CHCI3 it gives ortho and para product.

         

        Sulphonation

        1. Nitration

        The ortho and para isomers can be separated by steam distillation. This is because o- nitrophenol is steam volatile due to intramolecular hydrogen bonding while p nitrophenol is less volatile due to intermolecular hydrogen bonding which causes the association of molecules.

        Reimer-Tiemann reaction

        This reaction is an electrophilic substitution reaction and electrophile is dichlorocarbene. Similarly with carbon tetrachloride and alkali, c- and p-hydroxybenzoic acid are obtained

        Kolbe’s reaction

        1. Reaction with zinc dust

        Terms Related to Alcohols

        1. Rectified spirit It contains 95% ethyl alcohol and 45% water. It is an azeotrope (constant boiling mixture) and boils at 74°(.
        2. Absolute alcohol Alcohol containing no water, i.e; 100% C2H5OH is known as absolute alcohol. It is prepared as follows.
        3. Quick lime process
        4. Azeotropic method
        5. Methylated spirit The rectified spirit rendered poisonous by addition of 4-5% methyl alcohol, traces of pyridine and some copper sulphate and is known as methylated spirit or denatured alcohol.
        6. Power alcohol Alcohol mixed with petrol or fuel and used In internal combustion engines Is known as power alcohol.
        7. Wood spirit Methyl alcohol (CH3OH) is also called wood spirit. It is obtained by destructive distillation of wood. Pyroligneous add, the product of destructive distillation of wood, contains acetic acid (10%), methyl alcohol (25%) and acetone (05%). Drinking of methanol causes blindness.
        8. Grain alcohol Ethyl alcohol C2H5OH is also called grain alcohol. It is used In the preparation of various beverages containing different percentages.

         

        Dihydric Alcohols

        These are generally called glycols because of their sweet taste. Ethylene glycol (CH2OH – CH2OH) is the first and most important member of dihydric alcohol series.

        Methods of Preparation

        Physical Properties

        1. It is a colourless, syrupy liquid with sweet taste.
        2. Because of its tendency of formation of H-bonds, it is miscible with H2O and ethanol but not with ether.

        Chemical Properties

        It gives all the general reactions of -OH group.

        The per-iodic acid cleavage of 1,2-g1ycols is sometimes called Malaprade reaction.

        Trihydric Alcohols

        Glycerol or glycerine, CH2OH – CH(OH)- CH2OH is the first member of this group. Its IUPAC name is propane-l,2,3-triol.

        Method of Preparation

        It is obtained as a by product in saponification reaction.

        Physical Properties

        1. It is a colourless, odourless, viscous and hygroscopic liquid.
        2. It is sweet in taste and steam volatile.
        3. It is soluble in water but insoluble in ether.
        4. Due to excessive H-bonding, it is highly viscous and has high boiling point.

        Chemical Properties

        It gives all the general reactions given by -OR group but 2° OR is less reactive as compared to 1° .

        Some of its specific reactions are :

        Glyceryl trinitrate or tri nitroglycerine, when adsorbed on Kieselguhr is known as dynamite. Mixture of TNG and cellulose trinitrate is called blasting gelatin.

        Cone HNO3 gives II; dil HNO3 gives II and III; Bi(NO3)3 or NaNO3 gives VI; Fenton’s reagent or NaOBr or Br2 water in Na2CO3 gives a mixture of I and IV.

        Solid KMnO4 oxidises glycerol to VII and CO2 and H2O.

        With HIO4 (periodic acid). glycerol gives HCOOH and HCHO.

        Ethers

        Ethers are the organic compounds in which two alkyl or aryl groups are attached to a divalent oxygen. known as ethereal oxygen. These are represented by the general formula R–O-R” where R may be alkyl or aryl groups. e.g.,

        These are the functional isomers of alcohols. These also exhibit chain isomerism and metamerism.

        Nomenclature of Ethers

        In the IUPAC system, ethers are regarded as ‘alkoxy alkanes’ in which the ethereal oxygen is taken along with smaller alkyl group while the bigger alkyl group is regarded as a part of the alkane.

        Preparation of Ethers

        (ii) Williamson’s synthesis Only primary alkyl halides when react with sodium alkoxide give ether while tertiary alkyl halides give alkene due to steric hindrance.

         

        Physical Properties of Ethers

        Ethers are polar but insoluble inH20 and have low boiling point than alcohols of comparable molecular masses because ethers do not form hydrogen bonds with water.

        Structure of Ether

        The hybridisation of 0 atom in ethers is sp3 (tetrahedral) and its shape is V-shape.

        Chemical Reactions of Ether

        1. Reaction with HX

        Ethers with two different alkyl groups are also cleaved in the same manner and results in the

        formation of a primary halide (or smaller and less complex alkyl halide) by S R-O-R’ + HX → RX + R’OR

        N

        The order of reactivity of hydrogen halides is as follows HI > HBr > HCl

        2 mechanism.

        In ethers if one of the alkyl groups is a tertiary group, the halide formed is a tertiary halide by

        S 1mechanism.

        N

        Halogenation

        (v) Electrophilic 8ublititutioD reactions In ethers,-OR is ortho, para directing group and activate. the aromatic ring towards electrophilic substitution reaction.

        Ethyl phenyl ester C6H5OC2H5 is also, known as phenetole.

        Uses of Ethers

        1. Dimethyl ether is used as refrigerant and as a solvent at low temperature.
        2. Diethyl Ether is used as an anaesthesia in surgery .
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